INTRODUCTION
Crowd sourcing is a distributed problem-solving and production model. In the classic use of the term, problems are broadcast to an unknown group of solvers in the form of an open call for solutions. Users also known as the crowd typically forms into online communities, and the crowd submits solutions. The crowd also sorts through the solutions, finding the best ones. These best solutions are then owned by the entity that broadcast the problem in the first place the crowd sourer and the winning individuals in the crowd are sometimes rewarded. In some cases, this labor is well compensated, either monetarily, with prizes, or with recognition. In other cases, the only rewards may be kudos or intellectual satisfaction. Crowd sourcing may produce solutions from amateurs or volunteers working in their spare time, or from experts or small businesses which were unknown to the initiating organization.
Jeff Howe has differentiated four types of crowd sourcing strategies:
· Crowd creation
The use of the term has spread to include models where discrete work is distributed to individuals within the crowd. Companies such as Cloud Crowd and Crowd Flower do not use classic crowd Sourcing because the crowd does not all participate together, or collectively sort through solutions.
History of Crowd sourcing
The term "crowd sourcing" is a portmanteau of "crowd" and "outsourcing" first coined by Jeff Howe in a June 2006 Wired magazine article "The Rise of Crowd sourcing” How explains that because technological advances have allowed for cheap consumer electronics, the gap between professionals and amateurs has been diminished. Companies are then able to take advantage of the talent of the public, and Howe states that "It’s not outsourcing; it’s crowd sourcing." A less commercial approach was introduced by Henk van Ess in September 2010: “Crowd sourcing is channeling the experts' desire to solve a problem and then freely sharing the answer with everyone”.
Benefits of crowd sourcing
Ø Problems can be explored at comparatively little cost, and often very quickly.
Ø Payment is by results or even omitted.
Ø The organization can tap a wider range of talent than might be present in its own organization.
Ø By listening to the crowd, organizations gain first-hand insight on their customers' desires.
Ø The community may feel a brand-building kinship with the crowd sourcing organization, which is the result of an earned sense of ownership through contribution and collaboration.
Appeal
Grover explained in an interview that crowd sourcing eliminates a financial barrier that prohibits most people from participating in art, as "Internet real estate is essentially free." Grover finds that the primary appeal of crowd sourcing is the satisfaction that is obtained through working with a community.
Individuals who participate in crowd sourcing projects are often anonymous, and Grover states that "people reveal more when they’re not face-to-face," because "there’s a certain security in not being physically present," which adds to the appeal of crowd sourcing. Although it is difficult to crowd source complicated tasks, simple work tasks can be crowd sourced cheaply and effectively. The testing of software and other services can be crowd sourced. Crowd sourced customer support allows businesses to rely on customers to solve other customers issues and questions
Controversy
The ethical, social, and economic implications of crowd sourcing are subject to wide debate
Some reports have focused on the negative effects of crowd sourcing on business owners, particularly in regard to how a crowd sourced project can sometimes end up costing a business more than a traditionally outsourced project.
Some possible pitfalls of crowdsourcing include the following:
· Added costs to bring a project to an acceptable conclusion.
· Increased likelihood that a crowd sourced project will fail due to lack of monetary motivation, too few participants, lower quality of work, lack of personal interest in the project, global language barriers, or difficulty managing a large-scale, crowd sourced project.
· Below-market wages or no wages at all. Barter agreements are often associated with crowd sourcing.
· No written contracts, non-disclosure agreements, or employee agreements or agreeable terms with crowd sourced employees.
· Difficulties maintaining a working relationship with crowd sourced workers throughout the duration of a project.
· Susceptibility to faulty results caused by targeted, malicious work efforts.
Though some critics believe crowd sourcing exploits or abuses individuals for their labor, studies into the motivations of crowds have not yet shown that crowds feel exploited. On the contrary, many individuals in the crowd experience significant benefits from their participation in crowd sourcing applications. Further authors discuss both risks and rewards of using crowd sourcing as a means of balancing global inequalities.
Brand marketing
Crowd sourcing has attracted the attention of brand marketers as a way to engage customers using social media. Doritos "Crash the Super Bowl" campaign is one prominent example of a fully integrated and successful program. Doritos fans created their own advertisements for the chance to win a trip to the game, 25,000 cash, and the fame of creating a Super Bowl advertisement. In 2011, four consumer-created ads for Doritos and Pepsi Max ranked among the top ten in the USA. Crowd sourcing for brands doesn’t always work. Levia, a medical device marketer, failed to generate crowd sourcing activity with a similar promotion. They lacked the prerequisites of a crowd, sufficient motivation, and a reasonable expectation of work effort.
Independent contractor
An independent contractor is a person, business, or corporation that provides goods or services to another entity under terms specified in a contract or within a verbal and physical agreement. Unlike an employee, an independent contractor does not work regularly for an employer but works as and when required, during which time he or she may be subject to the Law of Agency. Independent contractors are usually paid on a freelance basis. Contractors often work through a franchise, which they themselves own, or may work through an umbrella company.
Independent contractor v/s employee
Sometimes, it is not a straightforward matter to determine who is an independent contractor and who should be classified as an employee. To make a determination, the IRS advises taxpayers to look at three aspects of the employment arrangement: financial control, behavioral control, and relationship between the parties While some independent contractors may work for a number of different organizations throughout the year, there are also many who retain independent contractor status even though they work for the same organization for the entire year.
Generally speaking, independent contractors retain control over their schedule and number of hours worked, jobs accepted, and performance of their job. This contrasts with the situation for regular employees, who usually work at the schedule required by the employer and whose performance is directly supervised by the employer. However many companies (particularly in the freight transport industry) specify the contractor's schedule, require purchase of vehicles from the company and prohibit work for other companies.
Pros and Cons of independent contractor
Pros
Ø Since they are rarely tied to an employer, they are free to set their own rules of business, limited only by bargaining power.
Ø Since they usually develop a large network of clients, the loss of one or two often has a negligible effect.
Ø Many people simply like the idea of "being your own boss." Aside from materialistic benefits, many people simply enjoy not having to answer to a supervisor.
Ø As an artist/author of any tangible artwork, such as paintings, sculptures, photographs, or written works, you are entitled to exclusive copyright ownership if you created the work as an independent contractor. If you created such works while in the employ of another person or corporation, the rights belong to the employer (under most standard employment contracts).
Cons
Ø In the United States misclassification of employees as "independent contractors" in order to avoid taxation and regulation is widespread.[4]
Ø Most independent contractors are usually also owners of a sole proprietorship, and as such, bear all the expenses of their product, which can be made up only by charging customers accordingly.
Ø There are several monetary incentives that are guaranteed to employees in the United States, but not independent contractors. Examples include worker's compensation and unemployment insurance.
An independent contractor in tort
The employer of an independent contractor is generally not held vicariously liable for the tortuous acts and omissions of the contractor, because the control and supervision found in an employer-employee or Principal-Agent relationship is lacking. However, vicarious liability will be imposed in three circumstances:
2. The contractor is involved in an ultra-hazardous activity (one likely to cause substantial injury, such as blasting with explosives) .
3. The employer is stopped from denying liability because he has held out the independent contractor as if he were simply an employee or agent.
Crowd
A crowd is a large and definable group of people, while "the crowd" is referred to as the so-called lower orders of people in general. A crowd may be definable through a common purpose or set of emotions, such as at a political rally, at a sports event, or during looting, or simply be made up of many people going about their business in a busy area. Everybody in the context of general public or the common people is normally referred to as the masses.
| · |
Terminology of crowd
The term crowd is often defined in contrast to other group nouns for collections of humans or animals: aggregation, audience, group, mass, mob, populous, public, rabble and throng. For example in "Public Opinion"[1] Vincent Price compares masses and crowds:
Crowds are defined by their shared emotional experiences, but masses are defined by their interpersonal isolation.
In human sociology, the term "mobbed" simply means "extremely crowded", as in a busy mall or shop. In animal behavior mobbing is a technique where many individuals of one species "gang up" on a larger individual of another species to drive them away. Mobbing behavior is often seen in birds.
Social aspects of crowds
Social aspects are concerned with the formation, management and control of crowds, both from the point of view of individuals and groups. Often crowd control is designed to persuade a crowd to align with a particular view (e.g., political rallies), or to contain groups to prevent damage or mob behavior. Politically organized crowd control is usually conducted by law enforcement but on some occasions military forces are used for particularly large or dangerous crowds.
Social aspects of crowds for adolescent peer groups
Adolescent culture is a relatively new feature of society, affecting most teenagers in the United States since the 1930s. The research on adolescent culture began with the search for identities: who the adolescents and their peer groups are and the differences and how adolescent culture differed from adult culture. Many researchers are making efforts to develop an understanding of the functions of crowds. But the findings are complicated due to multiple definitions of the crowd. Now in adolescence, peer affiliation becomes more important than ever before. Youths tend to categorize themselves and each other based on stereotypes and reputations. These categories are known in the developmental psychology literature as peer crowds. Crowds are defined as reputation based collectives of similarly stereotyped individuals who may or may not spend much time together. Crowds also refer to collectives of adolescents identified by the interests, attitudes, abilities, and/or personal characteristics they have in common. Crowds are different from cliques, which are interaction based peer groups who hang out together. Crowds are not simply clusters of cliques; the two different structures serve entirely different purposes. Because the clique is based on activity and friendship, it is the important setting in which the adolescent learns social skills like how to be a good friend and how to communicate effectively. These and other social skills are important in adulthood as well as in adolescence. Crowds are based on reputation and stereotypes than on interaction; they probably contribute more to the adolescent sense of identity and self-conception. For example jocks and burnouts are more likely to be interaction based than such crowds as loners and nerds.
Psychological aspects of crowds
Psychological aspects are concerned with the psychology of the crowd as a group and the psychology of those who allow their will and emotions to be informed by the crowd and other individual responses to Crowd funding
Crowd funding
Crowd funding sometimes called crowd financing, crowd sourced capital, or street performer protocol) describes the collective cooperation, attention and trust by people who network and pool their money and other resources together, usually via the Internet, to support efforts initiated by other people or organizations. Crowd funding occurs for any variety of purposes, from disaster relief to citizen journalism to artists seeking support from fans, to political campaigns, to funding a startup company or small business or creating free software.
History of crowd
The crowd funding approach has long precedents in the sphere of charity. It is receiving renewed attention from both commercial and social entrepreneurs now that social media, online communities and micropayment technology make it straightforward to engage and secure donations from a group of potentially interested supporters at very low cost.
Earlier definitions of crowd
In earlier some advocates say that crowd funding does not include investments, and only includes the categories of donations, memberships or pre-ordering of products, giving none of the contributors a future stake or monetary reward of any kind. Media Wave debates whether or not crowd funding should be considered an investment: Crowd funding definition may however be restricted to pooling of resources together at the grass root with a framework for rewards and for the purpose to initiate and or found an investment, where common desire and trust are the most important driving force for participation. Money contributed by group of individuals without a framework for future stake may not be defined as crowd funding because such contributions pass only as donations. Micro patronage is a system in which the public directly supports the work of others by making donations through the Internet. In use as early as 2001,[10] the term was popularized in 2005 by blogger Jason Kottke
Applications of crowd
Crowd funding is being experimented with as a funding mechanism for creative work such as blogging and journalism, music, and independent film, and also for funding a startup company. Community music labels are usually for-profit organizations where "fans assume the traditional financier role of a record label for artists they believe in by funding the recording process"
Various Approaches of crowds
Ø An entrepreneur seeking to use crowd funding (example for seed money) typically makes use of online communities to solicit pledges of small amounts of money from individuals who are typically not professional financiers. A range of variations are possible, for example:
Ø The solicitation could be to back an idea with no direct material return offered to those making a pledge. This type of crowd financing has long precedents including artistic patronage and the normal activities of charity fundraising. Sometimes a threshold pledge approach is used, in which all pledges are voided unless the threshold amount is reached before the deadline.
Ø Another approach invites a display of sponsorship in return for the cash pledged. A widely documented internet-based example is The Million Dollar Homepage.
Ø The solicitation could be to offer a loan.
Ø Some kind of quasi-equity investment could be offered, though any such scheme would need to avoid falling under any applicable financial regulations regarding making an initial public offering. One such scheme was introduced in February 2010.
Ø Straightforward equity investment. When multiple parties are involved, this can involve a lot of work. There are platforms to make this easier.
Ø A threshold pledge system as above, but rewards are offered in return for gifts or donations.
Pros and cons of crowd
Proponents of the crowd funding approach argue that it allows good ideas which do not fit the pattern required by conventional financiers to break through and attract cash through the wisdom of the crowd. If it does achieve "traction" in this way, not only can the enterprise secure seed funding to begin its project, but it may also secure evidence of backing from potential customers and benefit from word of mouth promotion.
Against these advantages is the requirement to disclose the idea for which funding is sought in public when it is at a very early stage. This exposes the promoter of the idea to the risk of the idea being copied and developed ahead of them by better-financed competitors.
Wisdom of the crowd
The wisdom of the crowd refers to the process of taking into account the collective opinion of a group of individuals rather than a single expert to answer a question. This process, while not new to the information age, has been pushed into the mainstream spotlight by social information sites such as Wikipedia and Yahoo! Answers, and other web resources that rely on human opinion. The process, in the business world at least, was written about in detail by James Surowiecki in his book The Wisdom of Crowds.
Definition of Crowd
The term crowd, in this usage, refers to any group of people, such as a corporation, a group of researchers, or simply the entire general public. The group itself does not have to be cohesive; for example, a group of people answering questions on Yahoo! Answers may not know each other outside of that forum, or a group of people betting on a horse race may not know each others' bets, but they nevertheless form a crowd under this definition.
Benefits of wisdom of crowd
The wisdom of the crowd applies to democratic journalism in that a group of non-experts determine what news is important, and then people outside the group can view the news based on those rankings. The social news sites Digs and News vine both fall into this category and rely heavily upon the wisdom of the crowd in creating their content.
Problems
The crowd tends to make its best decisions if it is made up of diverse opinions and ideologies. A crowd of like-minded individuals may contain bias, which can cloud their judgment and cause a less useful response to a given question. Crowds tend to work best when there is a correct answer to the question being posed, such as a question about geography or mathematics. The effect is easily undermined. Social influence can cause the average of the crowd answers to be wildly inaccurate, while the geometric mean and the median are far more robust.
Excerpt
Trench presented an idea in 1857 an idea that to those ranks of conservative and frock-coated men who sat silently in the library on that dank and foggy evening was potentially dangerous and revolutionary. But it was the idea in the end that made the whole venture possible.
The undertaking of the scheme the OED, he said, was beyond the ability of any one man. To peruse all of English literature and to comb the London and New York newspapers and the most literate of the magazines and journals must be instead "the combined action of many". It would be necessary to recruit a team moreover, a huge one probably comprising hundreds and hundreds of unpaid amateurs, all of them working as volunteers.
Interest in crowd sourcing
Grover is known as a supporter for crowd sourcing in art. In an interview with Leah DeVun for Wired Magazine, Grover explains that her interest in crowd sourcing formed out of her "fondness" for "early video collectives like Top Value Television, Video frees, and Rain dance." Her interest in creating "non-commodity-based artwork" led her to crowd sourcing. In another interview, Grover claims that crowd sourcing is growing rapidly, because "we're experiencing a moment in time where technology is allowing for people to cooperate in large numbers on all sorts of things."
Before Jeff Howe's article coined the term "crowd sourcing," Grover states that the original term was "relational art." While it would seem that crowd sourcing is a relatively new phenomenon, Grover claims that is only "a new term to describe something that already existed before the term was in common use." In the interview for Wired, Grover explained that crowd sourcing eliminates a financial barrier that prohibits most people from participating in art, as "Internet real estate is essentially free." Grover finds that the primary appeal of crowd sourcing is the satisfaction that is obtained through working with a community.
Human-based computation
Human-based computation is a computer science technique in which a computational process performs its function by outsourcing certain steps to humans. This approach uses differences in abilities and alternative costs between humans and computer agents to achieve symbiotic human-computer interaction.
In traditional computation, a human employs a computer to solve a problem; a human provides a formalized problem description to a computer, and receives a solution to interpret. Human-based computation frequently reverses the roles; the computer asks a person or a large group of people to solve a problem, then collects, interprets, and integrates their solutions.
Early work
Human-based genetic algorithm (HBGA) encourages human participation in multiple different roles. Humans are not limited to the role of evaluator, but can choose to perform a more diverse set of functions. In particular, they can contribute their innovative solutions into the evolutionary process, make incremental changes to existing solutions, and perform intelligent recombination. In short, HBGA outsources to humans all operations of a typical genetic algorithm. As a result of this outsourcing, HBGA can process the representations for which there is no computational innovation operators available, for example, natural languages. Thus, HBGA obviated the need for a fixed representational scheme that was a limiting factor of both standard and interactive EC. These algorithms can be also be viewed as novel forms of social organization coordinated by a computer program (Kosorukoff and Goldberg, 2002).
Classes of human-based computation
Human-based computation methods combine computers and humans in different roles. Malone (2009) proposed a way to describe division of labor in computation that groups human-based methods into three classes. The following table uses the evolutionary computation model to describe four classes of computation, three of which rely on humans in some role. For each class, a representative example is shown. The classification is in terms of the roles performed in each case by humans and computational processes. This table is a slice of three-dimensional table. The third dimension defines if the organizational function is performed by humans or a computer. Here it is assumed to be performed by a computer.
Classes of human-based computation from this table can be referred by two-letter abbreviations: HC, CH, and HH. Here the first letter identifies the type of agents performing innovation; the second letter specifies the type of selection agents. In some implementations human-based selection functionality might be limited; it can be shown with small h.
Methods of human-based computation
· (HC) Darwin (Vyssotsky, Morris, McIlroy, 1961) and Core War (Jones, Dewdney 1984) these are games where several programs written by people compete in a tournament (computational simulation) in which fittest programs will survive. Authors of the programs copy, modify, and recombine successful strategies to improve their chances of winning.
· (CH) Interactive EC (Caldwell and Johnston, 1991; Sims, 1991) IEC enables the user to create an abstract drawing only by selecting his/her favorite images, so human only performs fitness computation and software performs innovative role. [Unemi 1998] Simulated breeding style introduces no explicit fitness, just selection, which is easier for humans.
· (HH2) Wiki (Cunningham, 1995) enabled editing the web content by multiple users, i.e. supported two types of human-based innovation (contributing new page and its incremental edits). However, the selection mechanism was absent until 2002, when wiki has been augmented with a revision history allowing for reversing of unhelpful changes. This provided means for selection among several versions of the same page and turned wiki into a tool supporting collaborative content evolution (would be classified as human-based evolution strategy in EC terms).
· (HH3) Human-based genetic algorithm (Kosorukoff, 1998) uses both human-based selection and three types of human-based innovation (contributing new content, mutation, and recombination). Thus, all operators of a typical genetic algorithm are outsourced to humans (hence the origin of human-based). Examples include the 3form Free Knowledge Exchange (website), Knowledge iN, and Yahoo! Answers, all of which implement some form of collaborative problem-solving.
· (HH1) Social search applications accept contributions from users and attempt to use human evaluation to select the fittest contributions that get to the top of the list. These use one type of human-based innovation. Early work was done in the context of HBGA. Digg and Reddit are recently popular examples.
· (HC) Computerized tests. A computer generates a problem and presents it to evaluate a user. For example CAPTCHA tells human users from computer programs by presenting a problem that is supposedly easy for a human and difficult for a computer. While CAPTCHAs are effective security measures for preventing automated abuse of online services, the human effort spent solving them is otherwise wasted. The CAPTCHA system makes use of these human cycles to help digitize books by presenting words from scanned old books that optical character recognition cannot decipher. (von Ahn et al., 2008).
· (HC) Interactive online games: These are programs that extract knowledge from people in an entertaining way (Burgener, 1999; von Ahn 2003).
Incentives to participation
In different human-based computation projects people are motivated by one or more of the following.
ü Receiving a fair share of the result
ü Direct monetary compensation Esthetic satisfaction
ü Curiosity, desire to test if it works
ü Volunteerism, desire to support a cause of the project
ü Reciprocity, exchange, mutual help
ü Desire to be entertained with the competitive or cooperative spirit of a game
ü Desire to communicate and share knowledge
ü Desire to share a user innovation to see if someone else can improve on it
ü Desire to game the system and influence the final result
ü Fun
ü Increasing online reputation/recognition
Portmanteau
A portmanteau is a blend of two or more words or morphemes into one new word. A portmanteau word typically combines both sounds and meanings, as in smog, coined by blending smoke and fog. More generally, it may refer to any term or phrase that combines two or more meanings. In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph which represents two or more morphemes.
Meaning of portmanteau
"Portmanteau word" is used to describe a linguistic blend, namely "a word formed by blending sounds from two or more distinct words and combining their meanings."[4] This definition overlaps with the grammatical term contraction, but a distinction can be made between a portmanteau and a contraction by noting that contractions are formed from words that would otherwise appear together in sequence, such as do and not, whereas a portmanteau word is typically formed by combining two or more existing words that all relate to a singular concept which the portmanteau word is meant to describe, such as Spanish and English, into "spanglish".
Origin
The word "portmanteau" was first used in this sense by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871), in which Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the coinage of the unusual words in Jabberwocky, where "slithy" means "lithe and slimy" and "mimsy" is "flimsy and miserable". Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice,
'You see it's like a portmanteau -- there are two meanings packed up into one word.'
In his introduction to The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll uses "portmanteau" when discussing lexical selection:
Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious". Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first ... if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say "frumious".
Name-meshing
Two proper names can also be used in creating a portmanteau word in reference to the partnership between people, especially in cases where both persons are well-known, or sometimes to produce epithets such as "Billary" (referring to former United States president Bill Clinton and his wife, United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton).
In this example of recent American political history, the purpose for blending is not so much to combine the meanings of the source words but "to suggest a resemblance of one named person to the other;" the effect is often derogatory, as linguist Benjamin Zimmer notes.[13]In contrast, the public and even the media use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to "...give people an essence of who they are within the same name." This is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life "super couples."
Open source
The term open source describes practices in production and development that promote access to the end product's source materials. Some consider open source a philosophy, others consider it a pragmatic methodology. Before the term open source became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of phrases to describe the concept; open source gained hold with the rise of the Internet, and the attendant need for massive retooling of the computing source code. Opening the source code enabled a self-enhancing diversity of production models, communication paths, and interactive communities. Subsequently, the new phrase "open-source software" was born to describe the environment that the new copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues created.
The open-source model includes the concept of concurrent yet different agendas and differing approaches in production, in contrast with more centralized models of development such as those typically used in commercial software companies. A main principle and practice of open-source software development is peer production by bartering and collaboration, with the end-product, source-material, "blueprints," and documentation available at no cost to the public. This is increasingly being applied in other fields of endeavor, such as biotechnology.
The concept of open source and the free sharing of technological information existed long before computers. For example, cooking recipes have been shared since the beginning of human culture. Open source can pertain to businesses and to computers, software and technology.
In the early years of automobile development, a group of capital monopolists owned the rights to a 2-cycle gasoline engine patent originally filed by George B. Selden. By controlling this patent, they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands, or risk a lawsuit. In 1911, independent automaker Henry Ford won a challenge to the Selden patent. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association) was formed. The new association instituted a cross-licensing agreement among all US auto manufacturers: although each company would develop technology and file patents, these patents were shared openly and without the exchange of money between all the manufacturers. Until the US entered World War 2, 92 Ford patents were being used freely by other manufacturers who were in turn making use of 515 patents from other companies, all without lawsuits or the exchange of money.
Economic analysis
Most economists agree that open source candidates have a good information aspect. In general, this suggests that the original work involves a great deal of time, money, and effort. However, the cost of reproducing the work is very low, so that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost this is referred to as the marginal cost of a product. At this point, it is necessary to consider a copyright. The idea of copyright for works of authorship is to protect the incentive of making these original works. Copyright restriction then creates access costs on consumers who value the original more than making an additional copy but value the original less than the initial production cost. Thus, they will pay an access cost of this difference. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create something based on another work but are not willing to pay the copyright holder for the rights to the copyrighted work. The second type of cost incurred with a copyright system is the cost of administration and enforcement of the copyright.
Being organized effectively as a consumers' cooperative, the idea of open source is then to eliminate the access costs of the consumer and the creator by reducing the restrictions of copyright. This will lead to creation of additional works, which build upon previous work and add to greater social benefit. Additionally some proponents argue that open source also relieves society of the administration and enforcement costs of copyright. Organizations such as Creative Commons have websites where individuals can file for alternative “licenses”, or levels of restriction, for their works. These self-made protections free the general society of the costs of policing copyright infringement. Thus, on several fronts, there is an efficiency argument to be made on behalf of open sourced goods.
Applications of open source
Many fields of study and social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. For example, Linus Torvalds said, "the future is open source everything."But Eric Raymond and other founders of the open-source movement have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software, saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story is less compelling. The broader impacts of the open-source movement, and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures, remain to be seen.
The open-source movement has inspired increased transparency and liberty in other fields, including the release of biotechnology research by CAMBIA, Wikipedia, and other projects. The open-source concept has also been applied to media other than computer programs. Open source is an expression where it simply means that a system is available to all who wish to work on it. The difference between crowd sourcing and open source is that open-source production is a cooperative activity initiated and voluntarily undertaken by members of the public
CONCLUSION
In my seminar I study about the crowd sourcing and its history and benefits and also study about the brand marketing, independent contractor and the social and psychological aspects of crowd. In my study I learn more about the crowd sourcing and its application Individuals who participate in crowd sourcing projects are often anonymous, and Grover states that "people reveal more when they’re not face-to-face," because "there’s a certain security in not being physically present," which adds to the appeal of crowd sourcing. Although it is difficult to crowd source complicated tasks, simple work tasks can be crowd sourced cheaply and effectively
BIBILIOGRAPHY
No comments:
Post a Comment